Molecular Mechanisms of Dysregulated LH and FSH Secretion in Human Reproductive Failure

Journal article : Review

Several reproductive issues in both men and women are caused by changes in the pulsatile secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). For males to sustain spermatogenesis and Leydig cell function, and for females to ensure orderly folliculogenesis, ovulation, and ovarian steroidogenesis, precise coordination of LH and FSH secretion is necessary. Pituitary responsiveness, the frequency or amplitude of gonadotropin-releasing hormone pulses, or the dysregulation of feedback signals mediated by sex steroids and inhibins all disrupt the balance between LH and FSH secretion. Oligozoospermia, luteal-phase abnormalities, anovulation, or complete spermatogenic failure are possible clinical signs of these alterations. In addition to functional neuroendocrine disturbances, emerging genetic and epigenetic evidence, including pathogenic variants in genes such as gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor, kisspeptin, kisspeptin receptor, luteinizing hormone beta subunit, follicle-stimulating hormone beta subunit, follicle-stimulating hormone receptor, and luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor, has highlighted the role of inherited and acquired molecular defects in disrupting gonadotropin regulation. This narrative review synthesizes contemporary mechanistic, clinical, translational, and genetic evidence elucidating how dysregulated secretion of LH and FSH contributes to reproductive dysfunction. The molecular processes that regulate gonadotropin synthesis and release, as well as neuroendocrine regulation, gene-level determinants of hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis dysfunction, and the clinical phenotypes that result from their disruption, are all given special attention. We conclude with a discussion of new treatment strategies that target local intragonadal regulators to enhance gametogenic capacity, modulate gonadotropin signaling, or restore physiological gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) pulsatility, with consideration of how genetic insights may inform personalized therapeutic approaches.

Authors: Zikopoulos, A; Moustakli, E; Potiris, A; Paraschos, VS; Katopodis, P

• Publication status: Published
• Peer review status: Peer reviewed
• Publisher: MDPI
• Journal: Biomedicines
• Volume: 14
• Issue: 4
• Pages: 789
• Article number: 789
• Publication date: 2026-03-31
• Acceptance date: 2026-03-28
• DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines14040789
• EISSN: 2227-9059
• ISSN: 2227-9059
• Language: English
• Keywords: SMAD pathway; polycystic ovary syndrome; GnRH pulsatility; GNRHR signaling; KNDy neurons; hypogonadotropic hypogonadism; activin–inhibin axis; LHB and FSHB transcription
• Subtype: Review