Typhi Mykrobe: fast and accurate lineage identification and antimicrobial resistance genotyping directly from sequence reads for the typhoid fever agent Salmonella Typhi

Journal article

Background: Typhoid fever results from systemic infection with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (Typhi) and causes 10 million illnesses annually. Disease control relies on prevention (water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions or vaccination) and effective antimicrobial treatment. Antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) Typhi lineages have emerged and become established in many parts of the world. Knowledge of local pathogen populations informed by genomic surveillance, including of lineages (defined by the GenoTyphi scheme) and AMR determinants, is increasingly used to inform local treatment guidelines and to inform vaccination strategy. Current tools for genotyping Typhi require multiple read alignment or assembly steps and have not been validated for analysis of data generated with Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) long-read sequencing devices. Here, we introduce Typhi Mykrobe, a command line software tool for rapid genotyping of Typhi lineages, AMR determinants, and plasmid replicons direct from sequencing reads. Results: We validated Typhi Mykrobe lineage genotyping by comparison with the current standard read mapping-based approach and demonstrated 99.8% concordance across nearly 13,000 genomes sequenced with Illumina platforms. For the few isolates with discordant calls, we show that Typhi Mykrobe results are better supported by the evidence from raw sequence read data than the results generated using the mapping-based approach. We also demonstrate 99.9% concordance for detection of AMR determinants compared with the current standard assembly-based approach, with similar results for plasmid marker detection. Typhi Mykrobe predicts clinical resistance categorization (S/I/R) for eight drug classes, and we show strong agreement with phenotypic categorizations generated from reference laboratory minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) data for n = 1572 Illumina-sequenced isolates (> 99% agreement within one doubling dilution). We show strong concordance (> 96% for genotype and > 98% for AMR and plasmid) between calls made from ONT reads and those made from Illumina reads for isolates sequenced on both platforms (n = 93 genomes). Typhi Mykrobe takes less than a minute per sample and is available at https://github.com/typhoidgenomics/genotyphi. Conclusions: Typhi Mykrobe provides rapid and sensitive genotyping of Typhi genomes direct from Illumina and ONT reads, although lower accuracy was observed for R9 ONT data. It demonstrated accurate assignment of GenoTyphi lineage, detection of AMR determinants and prediction of corresponding AMR phenotypes, and identification of plasmid replicons.

Authors: Ingle, DJ; Hawkey, J; Hunt, M; Iqbal, Z; Keane, JA

• Publication status: Published
• Peer review status: Peer reviewed
• Publisher: BioMed Central
• Journal: Genome Medicine
• Volume: 17
• Issue: 1
• Article number: 130
• Publication date: 2025-10-24
• Acceptance date: 2025-09-15
• DOI: 10.1186/s13073-025-01551-4
• EISSN: 1756-994X
• ISSN: 1756-994X
• Language: English
• Keywords: Salmonella Typhi; Typhoid fever; Antimicrobial resistance (AMR); Pathogen sequencing; Whole genome sequencing (WGS); Genotyping; Lineage