Seasonal patterns of pig management in the Neolithic middle Yellow River region: evidence from carbon and oxygen isotopes in sequentially sampled tooth enamel

Journal article

Domestic pigs became the primary source of meat in northern China by ca 6000 cal yr B.P., coinciding with the intensification of C₄ millet agriculture. The seasonal management of pig husbandry and its relationship with millet production, however, remain unclear. To explore the seasonal birthing, feeding, and drinking behaviours of Neolithic pigs, we analysed sequential tooth enamel oxygen (δ ¹⁸O) and carbon (δ ¹³C) isotope profiles of pigs from the site of Xipo (ca 5800–5000 cal yr B.P.), and compared them against those of modern wild boar. In contrast to the single birthing season (spring) for wild boar, the δ ¹⁸O profiles of Xipo pigs support the hypothesis of two birthing seasons, spring and autumn. These results provide some of the earliest evidence for off-season birthing in Neolithic pigs, suggesting an extension of the pig breeding season under human management. Also, in contrast to the low δ ¹³C values of wild C₃-foraging boar, the consistently high δ ¹³C values of Xipo pigs suggest year-round consumption of C₄ resources, most likely derived from millet by-products and other C4 resources associated with settlement life. These findings suggest that Neolithic farmers in the middle Yellow River region managed the seasonality of pig breeding and feeding by ca 5500 cal yr B.P. By this point, pig husbandry and millet farming had been integrated into a seasonal agricultural cycle.

Authors: Zhang, Q; Hou, Y; Li, X; Dong, Y; Styring, A

• Publication status: Published
• Peer review status: Peer reviewed
• Publisher: Elsevier
• Journal: Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
• Volume: 701
• Article number: 114161
• Publication date: 2026-08-26
• Acceptance date: 2026-08-18
• DOI: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2026.114161
• EISSN: 1872-616X
• ISSN: 0031-0182
• Language: English
• Keywords: pig husbandry; millet farming; agricultural intensification; δ18O and δ13C profiles; birthing seasons; Northern China