The effects of prediction training on the real- time processing, offline comprehension, and oral production of case in L2 German

Journal article

This study investigates whether classroom training on prediction can facilitate development of predictive processing using case information in second language (L2) German and increased accuracy in case production. We compared a group of intermediate-level German learners that received training (N = 28) with another that did not (N = 13). The training comprised explicit instruction on German subject and object case followed by structured input activities with subject–verb–object (SVO) and object–verb–subject (OVS) sentences, in which case-marking on the sentence-initial definite article (der: nominative; den: accusative) provided a cue to its function (subject or object), and hence to the upcoming word order and sentence meaning. The effects of training were measured through a visual-world eye-tracking experiment, an aural comprehension task, and an oral production task. In the eye-tracking experiment, participants listened to SVO and OVS sentences while viewing two pictures differentiated by the reversal of the subject and object (e.g., a cook calling a waiter and a waiter calling a cook). If the case-marking on the first article is processed, this can facilitate looks towards the target picture even before hearing the second noun. Pretest results showed that the two groups were similar, with no evidence of case-driven eye movements, and low accuracy in comprehension and production of case in OVS sentences. In posttests, the training group made gains in all measures, which were maintained at a delayed posttest. The posttraining eye gaze data showed increased looks to the target picture during audio presentation of the second noun, though not before this point: thus, case-driven prediction was not established, but earlier processing of case-marking was. The comparison group made relatively smaller gains in comprehension and production, and showed no evidence of real-time processing of case. These findings suggest that targeted grammar comprehension training instigated a change in real-time processing and production behavior.

Authors: Marsden, H; Marsden, E; Hopp, H; Jackson, C; Jochum-Critchley, T

• Publication status: Published
• Peer review status: Peer reviewed
• Publisher: SAGE Publications
• Journal: Language Teaching Research
• Publication date: 2026-06-05
• Acceptance date: 2026-02-16
• DOI: 10.1177/13621688261444298
• EISSN: 1477-0954
• ISSN: 1362-1688
• Language: English