The calculator analogy: epistemic virtues for using LLMs

Journal article

Like the arrival of calculators in 1970s classrooms, large language models (LLMs) provoke both fears of intellectual deskilling and hopes of more efficient learning. In this paper we analyze the calculator analogy, arguing that while it is a useful starting point to understand the potential impact of LLMs in education, it is ultimately insufficient. We show where the analogy holds and, just as importantly, where its limitations reveal the unique pedagogical challenges posed by LLMs. These challenges arise from fundamental differences in how calculators and LLMs mediate learning, reflecting the distinct affordances of each technology. We argue that because of their affordances, realizing the educational potential of LLMs calls for cultivating epistemic virtues suited to human–AI interaction, such as patience, reflective engagement, or intellectual vigilance and humility. Equally, LLM design must actively foster these virtues through features like built-in prompts, feedback loops or reflective questions, to name just a few.

Authors: Voinea, C; Porsdam Mann, S; Savulescu, J; Earp, BD

• Publication status: Published
• Peer review status: Peer reviewed
• Publisher: Elsevier
• Journal: Technology in Society
• Volume: 85
• Article number: 103198
• Publication date: 2025-12-13
• Acceptance date: 2025-12-12
• DOI: 10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.103198
• EISSN: 1879-3274
• ISSN: 0160-791X
• Language: English
• Keywords: large language models (LLMs); calculator analogy; technological affordances; epistemic virtues; educational technology; human–AI interaction