Nectar, water, or blood? A Buddhist history of perceptual relativism

Thesis

The question of perceptual relativism—the notion that a single object can be perceived differently by various observers—has been fundamental to Buddhist philosophy throughout its history, both supporting and challenging key Buddhist ethical, metaphysical, and soteriological doctrines. This thesis maps the tumultuous relationship Buddhist philosophers have had with perceptual relativism in their intellectual history, through a specific example that became central to Buddhist epistemological discourse. This example concerns the perception of a river as nectar by gods, water by humans, and blood by hungry ghosts. Given its widespread use across Buddhist epistemological literature, this example provides a focused and revealing lens through which to examine the role of perceptual relativism in Buddhist thought.

Following this example’s transmission across more than two millennia, the study begins with its earliest appearance in a Pāli text (Petavatthu, c. 2nd cent. BCE) and tracks its development through early Vinaya, Abhidharma, and Mahāyāna sources. It examines influential philosophical interpretations by Asaṅga, Vasubandhu (4th cent.), and Candrakīrti (7th cent.) with brief considerations of its usage by Daoshi (7th cent.) in China, and Japan by Kōbō Daishi (7th cent.). The main section focuses on Tibet, from Rongzompa's eleventh-century treatment through the vigorous debates between Gelugpa and Sakyapa traditions in the 14th-15th centuries, culminating in Ju Mipham’s nineteenth-century interpretation.

Contemporary scholarship has discussed the philosophical implications of perceptual relativism and scepticism for Madhyamaka, using Western philosophical “analytical” frameworks (cf. Cowherds 2011), and several distinct Tibetan solutions (Wangchuk 2009, Yakherds 2021). This study offers the first comprehensive investigation of its historical development across Buddhist traditions. By mapping, contextualizing, and critiquing the unique current of philosophical thought surrounding this example, the dissertation illuminates broader questions about the role of epistemic relativism in Buddhist thought, such as: Has epistemic relativism and scepticism always concerned Buddhists? To what extent did Tibetan exegetes innovate beyond their Indian predecessors? Furthermore, what does this two thousand year long conversation tell us about relativism itself? Can the sophisticated Tibetan frameworks for resolving perceptual relativism inform contemporary approaches to historiography and hermeneutics? Through exploring these questions, the study offers novel insights into this significant stream of Buddhist philosophical thought, and is a contribution to larger discussions on relativism within world philosophy.

Authors: Fisher, JD

• DOI: 10.5287/ora-1r4n2ok0z
• Type of award: DPhil
• Level of award: Doctoral
• Awarding institution: University of Oxford
• Language: English
• Keywords: Madhyamaka; Tibetan Buddhism; conceptual history; relativism; Buddhist philosophy; intellectual Buddhist History; perceptual relativism
• Subjects: Tibetan language--Religious aspects--Buddhism; Relativity; Buddhist philosophy