Select2Plan: training-free ICL-based planning through VQA and memory retrieval

Journal article

We introduce Select2Plan (S2P), a novel training-free framework for high-level robot planning that leverages off-the-shelf VLMs for autonomous navigation. Unlike most learning-based approaches that require extensive task-specific training and large-scale data collection, S2P overcomes the need for fine-tuning by adapting inputs to align with the VLM's pretraining data. Our method achieves this through a combination of structured Visual Question Answering (VQA) to ground action selection on the image, and In-Context Learning (ICL) to exploit knowledge drawn from relevant examples from a memory bank of (visually) annotated data, which can include diverse, in-the-wild sources. We demonstrate S2P flexibility by evaluating it in both First-Person View (FPV) and Third-Person View (TPV) navigation. S2P improves the performance of a baseline VLM by 40% in TPV and surpasses end-to-end trained models by approximately 24% in FPV when tasked with navigating towards unseen objects in novel scenes. These results highlight the adaptability, simplicity, and effectiveness of our training-free approach, demonstrating that the use of pre-trained VLMs with structured memory retrieval enables robust high-level robot planning without costly task-specific training. Our experiments also show that retrieving samples from heterogeneous data sources, including online videos of different robots or humans walking, is highly beneficial for navigation. Notably, our method effectively generalizes to novel scenarios, requiring only a handful of demonstrations. Project Page: lambdavi.github.io/select2plan

Authors: Buoso, D; Robinson, L; Averta, G; Torr, P; Franzmeyer, T

• Publication status: Published
• Peer review status: Peer reviewed
• Publisher: IEEE
• Journal: IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters
• Volume: 10
• Issue: 11
• Pages: 11267-11274
• Publication date: 2025-09-04
• Acceptance date: 2025-08-13
• DOI: 10.1109/LRA.2025.3606790
• EISSN: 2377-3766
• Language: English
• Keywords: navigation; robots; planning; visualization; cameras; training; adaptation models; transformers; predictive models; oral communication